Under the influence of the French revolutionaries, many Jews gained citizenship in Europe. But the industrial boom brought new forms of hostility. As the weight of religion diminished, anti-Semitism turned to racial theories. Jews were also used as scapegoats by a populist socialist movement that revived the medieval cliché of the "moneyed Jew" and blamed them for working-class misery. Under the impetus of the journalist Theodor Herzl, the Zionist movement and the demand for a refugee state emerged. In 1903, the Russian pogrom at Kishinev outraged the international community. The 20th century was also marked by the advent of the Hitler regime, with its openly anti-Semitic doctrine.